ARCHITECTURE
Pre-Islamic: The only
substantial remains pre-Islamic religious
buildings are those of the remarkable Elamite ziggurat at
Chogha Zanbil. The earliest building material was sun-dried
mud brick. Baked brick was used for outer surfaces by the 12th
century BC. The ancient inhabitants of Persia imbued the
mountains with great religious symbolism, and structures were
built in imitation of mountains, giving rise to the
characteristic pyramidal temples called ziggurat. Purely
religious Achaemenian buildings are conspicuous by their
absence. However, the most important religious influence
before the Arab Conquest is Zoroastrianism. Most of the
greatest buildings were built with a religious purpose, and
even in secular buildings religious influences are rarely
entirely absent.
Palaces, on the other
hand, abound, and these vary considerably according to the
period. In Cyrus's time, for example, they were oblong in
shape, of exquisite proportions, and generally executed in
contrasting colors as between say wall surfaces and window
emplacements. The buildings of Darius and Xerxes were bigger
and better; the result was rather heavy and colorless,
depending on elaborate carving applied to doorways, staircases
and columns. The usual plan was a large hall often with
columns surrounded by small rooms; a common feature of these
were the recesses about the height and size of windows,
probably used by cupboards, which are an invariable feature of
the more modest houses of Iran today. The materials used
include unbaked brick for walls, local stone for windows,
stairways, doorways and some walls and columns, and heavy
timber for columns and roofs.
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 Alexander
the Great's conquest (about 330 BC) brought a virtual end to
the Achaemenian style in Persia. The following relatively
dormant period under the Seleucids marked the introduction of
Hellenism to Persia. No great examples remain today, although
the Temple of Artemis (Anahita) at Kangavar, with Greek
capitals and built to a Greek goddess, is the best preserved.
Under the Parthians (about 250 BC to 224 AD), Hellenism and
indigenous styles merged, along with some Roman and Byzantine
influences, and several characteristically Persian features
arose, including the ivan. In the Sassanian period
(224-642 AD), buildings b~came larger, heavier and more
complex. Decoration became more adventurous and more use was
made of color, especially in frescoes and mosaics.
The Sassanians built
fire-temples throughout their empire, and
the simple plan of the earliest examples was retained
throughout the pre-Islamic era, even in the design of
churches. But the central features of Sassanian buildings -the
four-ivan plan with domed square chamber, the squinches on
which the dome rested and the large arched doorway- are
indigenous to Iran and of much significance later. The most
important pilgrimage site of the pre- Islamic Persian Empire.
Takht-e Soleiman. was established in the Sassanian era.ln
particular the above-mentioned features influenced the
development of a specifically Iranian type of mosque, the so-
called madraseh mosque on the four ivan plan
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Mosques:
From Cordoba to Delhi, from Sarajevo to the Niger, the mosque
(masjid in Persian and Arabic) or house of prayer is
the outstanding symbol of Islam, the focus of worship, and
contemplation, the meeting place of man with man, and of man
with God. Its forms are more varied and its uses more
widespread than those of the Christian cathedral or church.
While primarily a place of worship, it is also an assembly
hall, often a religious college, sometimes a court of
.justice, even, to some extent, a poor man's club.
The majority of Iranian mosques conform, in whole or in part,
to a plan that in Iran must be regarded as the norm. It
consists of a an open central court, sometimes large enough to
be planted with trees or flowers, with a large portal or
ivan, on the side facing towards Mecca, which leads into a
domed sanctuary.
On the other three
sides of the court there are arcades and altars and in the
center of each side another, though smaller, ivan. To
the left and right of the sanctuary there may be arcaded
halls, and in addition balconies (often reserved for the use
of women worshippers) from which a view of the mihrab
can be obtained. In the grander mosques the south ivan,
leading into the sanctuary, and sometimes also the north
ivan, which is frequently the main entrance to the mosque.
is flanked by
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Minarets:
The earliest minarets were square, at least in their
lower stories, but few of these survive in Iran today. The
round minaret originated in north-east Iran and was built of
brick, tapering towards the summit. Until at least the
thirteenth century, minarets were almost invariably single and
placed in the north comer of the mosque. Since the fifteenth
century minarets have generally been covered with mosaic or
colored tiles, in the taste of the period. In general, Iran,
compared with, say, Turkey; is markedly deficient in minarets.
Only at Esfahan do they occupy a prominent place in the
landscape. |
Shrines:
Nearly
every town in Iran has its quota of shrines, and
the village or wayside shrines are a recurring feature of the
Iranian landscape. In general they are modest, circular,
four-sided or octagonal buildings, surmounted by a cone or
dome. Many have charm but no great architectural merit; the
famous shrines, rambling structures which have received
additions from generations of the devout, are among the most
splendid, and in some cases the most opulent, buildings in
Iran. The lesser shrines, unlike the mosques, have a distinct
re2jonal character. |
Tombs:
Secular tombs fall into two clearly marked architectural
categories -the domed mausoleum and the tomb tower. The former
has certain affinities with the larger shrine. It is
frequently octagonal rising through squinches and galleries
into a circular dome. It is built for show, inside and out.
meant to be visited. the last resting place of a chieftain who
may have had no claim to sainthood, but expected to be duly
revered when he was dead. Tomb towers, which are mainly
confined to northern Iran. were conceived in a different
spirit. They were gaunt, remote, solitary resting places, not
meant to be frequented by admirers in generations to come.
Palaces:
There are substantial remains of
Achaemenian and Sassanian palaces, impressive both in size
and in detail, some of which, as at Persepolis, have been
almost miraculously preserved; but when all is said they
are ruins. Of Seljuk and Mongol royal residences, however,
all trace has disappeared. It is only from Safavid times
that royal houses have survived intact, and even then the
crop is disappointing. For practical purposes, Safavid
palaces are confined to Esfahan.
Bridges: More essential for the maintenance of
communications than caravansaries, the building of
bridges, which where both sturdy and a pleasure to the
eye, continued until recently.
Well-constructed hump-backed bridges of ancient dates are
to be found in many parts of the country -the outstanding
examples of which you will see at Esfahan: the Allah Verdi
Khan (1629) and the Khaju (1660). These two mighty
structures are among the most impressive monuments in
Esfahan, and are two of the most remarkable bridges in the
world, of their kind, and still in service.
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Caravansaries:
A caravan in Persian means a group of travelers or merchants
banded together and organized for mutual assistance and
defense while traveling through unsettled or hostile country.
Caravan trade is associated with the history of Iran and the
Middle East as far back as the records of ancient
civilizations extend and seems to have been well developed
before maritime commerce began.
It is evident that all trade from one fertile area to another
in this region had to be organized from the first, since long
distances of desert trail separated settled parts and since
local governments could not guarantee protection against
tribes eager to loot and pillage. Such wares as jewels,
spices, perfumes, dyes, metals, rare woods, ivory, oils, and
textiles (chiefly silk) are associated with the trade. Camels
were the main catties from Egypt and Iran to Mesopotamia and
throughout the Arabian Peninsula. They were also introduced
into North Africa and Sahara region in the 3rd century AD.
Donkeys were used in Iran and Asia Minor. Trade naturally
prospered in the period of great empires, when the caravan
routes could be controlled and protected; and it was to secure
control of such routes that many wars were fought and
conquests made in the ancient times.
Iranian Empire and later governments, religious foundations,
merchants' guilds, as well as the local notables and rulers
provided for the establishment of caravansaries, or
inns, for the accommodation of travelers along the way. Such
improvements facilitated the movement of troops to protect the
routes. Cities rose and fell in ancient times in proportion to
the rise and fall in the trade of the caravan routes upon
which they were located. Most of these are derelict today.
But, even as ruins, ;they are readily recognizable, invariably
built round a square -in fact like the courtyard of a mosque
on the four-ivan plan. Architecturally, the simple
design of Iran's caravansaries provided security and
privacy for the traveler, protection for the animals, and
through the extra story over the arch of the main entrance
facing the highroad, control over admissions. According to A U
Pope, never was the Persian facility for practical planning
better demonstrated. In large towns caravansary, bazaar, and
mosque were frequently contiguous. The grandest and remotest
caravansaries often housed a mosque of their own within their
precincts.
When you inquire the age of a caravansary in modern Iran, you
are generally told that it dates from the time of Shah Abbas.
This is a deceptive generalization and a term applied
indiscriminately to all caravansaries built between the late
16th- 19th centuries AD. They were for the most part in
operation until the late 19th century, and it is only since
the arrival of the motor car that they have fallen into decay. |
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